Medieval (c.1150 - c.1400)
Gregorian chant and plainsong which are monodic (i.e.
written as one musical line) gradually developed during the 11th to 13th
centuries into organum (i.e. two or three lines moving simultaneously
but independently, therefore almost inadvertently representing the
beginnings of harmony). Organum was, however, initially rather stifled
by rigid rules governing melody and rhythm, which led ultimately to the
so-called Ars Nova period of the 14th century, principally represented
by the composers de Vitry, Machaut, and Landini.
Renaissance (c.1400 - c.1600)
The fifteenth century witnessed vastly increased freedoms, most
particularly in terms of what is actually perceived as 'harmony' and
'polyphony' (the simultaneous movement of two or three interrelated
parts). Composers (although they were barely perceived as such) were
still almost entirely devoted to choral writing, and the few
instrumental compositions which have survived often create the
impression (in many cases entirely accurately) of being vocal works in
disguise, but minus the words.
There is obvious new delight in textural variety and contrast,
so that, for example, a particular section of text might be enhanced by a
vocal part dropping out momentarily, only to return again at a special
moment of emphasis. The four most influential composers of the fifteenth
century were Dunstable, Ockeghem, Despres and Dufay.
The second half of the 16th century witnessed the beginnings of
the tradition which many music lovers readily associate with the normal
feel of 'classical' music. Gradually, composers moved away from the
modal system of harmony which had predominated for over 300 years (and
still sounds somewhat archaic to some modern ears), towards the
organisation of their work into major and minor scales, thereby
imparting the strong sensation of each piece having a definite tonal
centre or 'key'.
This was also something of a golden period for choral
composition as a seemingly endless flow of a capella (unaccompanied)
masses, motets, anthems, psalms and madrigals flowed from the pens of
the masters of the age. In addition, instrumental music came into its
own for the first time, especially keyboard music in the form of
fantasias, variations, and dance movements (galliards, pavanes etc.).
Composers of particular note include Dowland, Tallis, Byrd, Gibbons, Frescobaldi, Palestrina, Victoria, Lassus, Alonso Lobo, Duarte Lobo, Cardoso and Gesualdo.
Baroque (c.1600 - c.1750)
During the Baroque period, the foundations were laid for the
following 300 or so years of musical expression: the idea of the modern
orchestra was born, along with opera (including the overture, prelude,
aria, recitative and chorus), the concerto, sonata, and modern cantata.
The rather soft-grained viol string family of the Renaissance was
gradually replaced by the bolder violin, viola and cello, the
harpsichord was invented, and important advances were made in all
instrumental groups.
Until about 1700, the old modes still exerted themselves from
time to time by colouring certain melodic lines or chord progressions,
but from the beginning of the 18th century the modern harmonic system
based upon the major and minor scales was effectively pan-European.
Choral music no longer dominated, and as composers turned more and more
to writing idiomatic instrumental works for ensembles of increasing
colour and variety, so 'classical' music (as opposed to 'popular')
gradually began to work its way into the very fabric of society, being
played outdoors at dinner parties or special functions (e.g. Handel's Water Music),
or as a spectacle in the form of opera. On a purely domestic level,
every wealthy lady would have a spinet to play, and at meal-times the
large and rich houses would employ musicians to play what was popularly
called Tafelmusik in Germany, of which Telemann was perhaps the most famous composer.
Of the many 17th century composers who paved the way for this
popular explosion of 'classical' music, the following were outstanding:
Monteverdi,
Corelli,
Alessandro Scarlatti,
Schutz,
Buxtehude,
Purcell and
Lully.
Yet, the most popular composers of the period, indeed those who
seem to define by their very names the sound of Baroque music at its
most colourful and sophisticated are
Johann Sebastian Bach,
Handel,
Telemann,
Rameau,
François Couperin,
Domenico Scarlatti, and
Vivaldi,
all of them at their creative peak during the first half of the 18th century.
Classical (c.1750 - c.1830)
The Baroque era witnessed the creation of a number of musical genres
which would maintain a hold on composition for years to come, yet it was
the Classical period which saw the introduction of a form which has
dominated instrumental composition to the present day: sonata form. With
it came the development of the modern concerto, symphony, sonata, trio
and quartet to a new peak of structural and expressive refinement. If
Baroque music is notable for its textural intricacy, then the Classical
period is characterised by a near-obsession with structural clarity.
The seeds of the Classical age were sown by a number of
composers whose names are now largely forgotten such as Schobert and
Honnauer (both Germans largely active in Paris), as well as more
historically respected names, including
Gluck,
Boccherini
and at least three of Johann Sebastian Bach's sons:
Carl Phillip Emmanuel,
Wilhelm Friedmann and
Johann Christian
(the so-called 'London' Bach). They were representative of a
period which is variously described as rococo or galante, the former
implying a gradual move away from the artifice of the High Baroque, the
latter an entirely novel style based on symmetry and sensibility, which
came to dominate the music of the latter half of the 18th century
through two composers of extraordinary significance: Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
Early Romantic (c.1830 - c.1860)
As the Classical period reached its zenith, it was becoming increasing clear (especially with the late works of Beethoven and Schubert) that the amount and intensity of expression composers were seeking to achieve was beginning to go beyond that which a Classically sized/designed orchestra/piano could possibly encompass. The next period in musical history therefore found composers attempting to balance the expressive and the formal in music with a variety of approaches which would have left composers of any previous age utterly bewildered. As the musical map opened up, with nationalist schools beginning to emerge, it was the search for originality and individuality of expression which began here that was to become such an over-riding obsession in the present century.The Romantic era was the golden age of the virtuoso, where the most fiendishly difficult music would be performed with nonchalant ease, and the most innocuous theme in a composition would be developed at great length for the enjoyment of the adoring audience. The emotional range of music during this period was considerably widened, as was its harmonic vocabulary and the range and number of instruments which might be called upon to play it. Music often had a 'programme' or story-line attached to it, sometimes of a tragic or despairing nature, occasionally representing such natural phenomena as rivers or galloping horses. The next hundred years would find composers either embracing whole-heartedly the ideals of Romanticism, or in some way reacting against them.
Of the early Romantic composers, two Nationalists deserve special mention, the Russian Glinka (of Russlan and Ludmilla fame) and the Bohemian Smetana (composer of the popular symphonic poem Vltava or 'The Moldau'). However, the six leading composers of the age were undoubtedly Berlioz, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Liszt and Verdi.
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